Resumo A análise da variabilidade da seca é de extrema importância para o planejamento e gestão eficiente dos recursos hídricos e da segurança alimentar em qualquer área específica. No estudo atual, a ocorrência de períodos de seca foi investigada na província do Baluchistão, no Paquistão, durante as últimas quatro décadas (1981-2020), usando índice de precipitação padronizado (SPI), índice de seca de reconhecimento (RDI) e decis de precipitação (PD) em uma escala anual. Dados de precipitação e temperatura coletados de 13 estações meteorológicas sinóticas localizadas no Baluchistão foram usados para calcular o SPI, o RDI e o PD para cálculo da severidade e duração da seca. A análise temporal mostra os impactos adversos dos períodos de seca em Nokkundi durante 1991-1993 e na maior parte da província de 1999 a 2004. Além disso, o índice de aridez para cada estação foi calculado com base no método do PNUMA. Os resultados de SPI e RDI foram encontrados mais localizados do que PD, pois PD apresenta eventos extensos. Além disso, a análise de componentes principais mostra uma contribuição significativa de todos os índices. Para SPI, RDI e PD, os três primeiros componentes principais têm mais de 70% de participação, contribuindo com 73,63%, 74,15% e 72,30%, respectivamente. O planejamento e a preparação de longo prazo para mitigar os impactos da seca só são possíveis por meio da integração dos padrões de seca.

Abstract Drought variability analysis is of utmost concern for planning and efficiently managing water resources and food security in any specific area. In the current study, drought spell occurrence has been investigated in the Balochistan province of Pakistan during the past four decades (1981-2020) using standardized precipitation index (SPI), reconnaissance drought index (RDI), and precipitation deciles (PD) at an annual timescale. Precipitation and temperature data collected from 13 synoptic meteorological stations located in Balochistan were used to calculate the SPI, the RDI, and the PD for calculation of drought severity and duration. Based on these indices, temporal analysis shows adverse impacts of drought spells in Nokkundi during 1991-1993, in Barkhan, Dalbandin, Quetta stations during 1999-2000, whereas Barkhan, Dalbandin, Lasbella, Sibi during 2002-2003, Zhob during 2010-2011, Kalat and Khuzdar during 2014-2015, and Panjgur during 2017-2018. Also, the aridity index for each station was calculated based on the UNEP method shows that major part of Balochistan lies in the arid zone, followed by the hyper-arid in the southwestern part and the semi-arid zones in the northeastern part of the province. SPI and RDI results were found more localized than PD, as PD shows extensive events. Furthermore, principal component analysis shows a significant contribution from all the indices. For SPI, RDI, and PD, the first three principal components have more than 70% share, contributing 73.63%, 74.15%, and 72.30% respectively. By integrating drought patterns, long-term planning, and preparedness to mitigate drought impacts are only possible. The RDI was found more suitable and recommended in case of temperature data availability.

American and French law, like South African law, recognises claims for emotional or mental harm. Emotional, mental or psychological harm was recognised by the courts only in the nineteenth century and even though the mind and body in a sense are considered as a unit, these types of claims are not on a par with claims for physical bodily injury. Finding delictual or tort liability for emotional, mental or psychological harm has been problematic not only in South Africa but also in the United States of America and France. Even though there are fundamental differences in the law between these jurisdictions, the broader questions the courts face is whether a claimant is entitled to claim, the amount of damages that should be awarded and how to limit liability with this type of claim. Limiting liability for emotional or mental harm is generally the main concern but the courts have found ways of using the elements of a delict or tort, or concepts such as reasonable foreseeability of harm to limit the claims. American, French and South African law recognise claims for emotional, mental or psychological harm sustained by primary and secondary victims. Thus emotional, mental or psychological harm caused directly or indirectly is compensable. In American and French law the concept of reasonableness plays an important role, whether it be implicit or explicit, in determining delictual or tort liability for the emotional or mental harm sustained. In a sense, reasonableness also plays an overarching role in determining liability. The influence of reasonableness in determining delictual or tort liability for psychiatric or psychological harm in English and South African law will be discussed in a forthcoming contribution. In this contribution the focus is on the influence of reasonableness in determining delictual or tort liability for emotional or mental harm in American and French law.

American and French law, like South African law, recognises claims for emotional or mental harm. Emotional, mental or psychological harm was recognised by the courts only in the nineteenth century and even though the mind and body in a sense are considered as a unit, these types of claims are not on a par with claims for physical bodily injury. Finding delictual or tort liability for emotional, mental or psychological harm has been problematic not only in South Africa but also in the United States of America and France. Even though there are fundamental differences in the law between these jurisdictions, the broader questions the courts face is whether a claimant is entitled to claim, the amount of damages that should be awarded and how to limit liability with this type of claim. Limiting liability for emotional or mental harm is generally the main concern but the courts have found ways of using the elements of a delict or tort, or concepts such as reasonable foreseeability of harm to limit the claims. American, French and South African law recognise claims for emotional, mental or psychological harm sustained by primary and secondary victims. Thus emotional, mental or psychological harm caused directly or indirectly is compensable. In American and French law the concept of reasonableness plays an important role, whether it be implicit or explicit, in determining delictual or tort liability for the emotional or mental harm sustained. In a sense, reasonableness also plays an overarching role in determining liability. The influence of reasonableness in determining delictual or tort liability for psychiatric or psychological harm in English and South African law will be discussed in a forthcoming contribution. In this contribution the focus is on the influence of reasonableness in determining delictual or tort liability for emotional or mental harm in American and French law.

The standard of the reasonable person or its equivalent, in general, is used in many jurisdictions to determine fault in the form of negligence. Although the standard is predominantly objective it is also subjective in that the subjective attributes of the person against whom the standard applies as well as the subjective circumstances present at the time of the delict or tort lend themselves to an objective-subjective application. In South African law, before a person can be judged according to the standard of the reasonable person, the person must first be held accountable. If a person cannot be held accountable, then the standard does not apply at all. The general standard of the reasonable person cannot be applied to children, the elderly, persons with physical disabilities, persons with mental impairments or experts. Therefore, depending on the subjective attributes of the person against whom the standard is being applied, the standard may have to be adjusted accordingly. The general standard of the reasonable person would be raised when dealing with experts, for instance, and lowered when dealing with persons with physical disabilities. This contribution considers whether the current application of the standard of the reasonable person in South African law is satisfactory when applied generally to all persons, no matter their age, experience, gender, physical disability and cognitive ability. The application of the standard of the reasonable person in South African law is compared to the application of the standard of the reasonable person or its equivalent in the United Kingdom, the United States of America and France. Just as South African law applies the standard of the reasonable expert to experts, this contribution explores whether the South African law should be developed to use similar adjusted standards when dealing with children, the elderly, persons with physical disabilities and so on.

BACKGROUND: South Africa (SA) has a high prevalence of HIV and tuberculosis. Cape Town was the SA metropole most affected in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. Early observational data from Africa may provide valuable insight into what can be expected as the pandemic expands across the continent.OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence, clinical features, comorbidities and outcome of an early cohort of HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients admitted with COVID-19.METHODS: This was a descriptive observational study of an early cohort of adults with COVID-19 pneumonia admitted from 25 March to 11 May 2020.RESULTS: Of 116 patients (mean age 48 years, 61% female) admitted, 24 were HIV-positive (21%). The most common symptoms reported were cough (n=88; 73%), shortness of breath (n=78; 69%), fever (n=67; 59%), myalgia (n=29; 25%) and chest pain (n=22; 20%). The most common comorbidities were hypertension (n=46; 41%), diabetes mellitus (n=43; 38%), obesity (n=32; 28%) and HIV (n=24; 21%). Mortality was associated with older age (mean (standard deviation) 55 (12) years v. 46 (14) years; p<0.01); the presence of hypertension or hypertension along with diabetes and/or obesity; lower partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio; and higher urea level, white cell count, neutrophil count, and C-reactive protein, lactate dehydrogenase and ferritin levels, and high neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio. The overall survival rate for all hospital admissions was 86/116 (73%). In this early cohort, survival was similar in patients with HIV (n=18; 75%) compared with those without HIV (n=67; 75%) (p=1). Of the 74 patients admitted to the wards, 63 (85%) survived, whereas 22 of 42 (52%) admitted to the intensive care unit survived.CONCLUSIONS: Patients with HIV infection represented a large proportion of all COVID-19 admissions. The presentation and outcome of patients with HIV did not differ significantly from those of patients without HIV.

INTRODUCTION: Patients' expectations of complete removable dentures may play a role in determining their level of satisfaction with newly constructed complete removable dentures. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: To develop a Patient Expectation Questionnaire using a validated satisfaction questionnaire as framework and subsequently determine patients' expectations of complete removable dentures. OBJECTIVES: 1. To formulate a patient expectations questionnaire using a validated satisfaction questionnaire framework-that will assesses their perceptions of new dentures 2. To determine patient expectations related to masticatory functional, pain, psychological discomfort and social disability with complete removable dentures. METHODOLOGY: All the aspects of the newly formed Patient Expectation Questionnaire (PEQ) was formulated following the framework of the OHIP-20 patient satisfaction tool. The expectation questionnaire was administered to patients at their first dental visit with the information sheet and informed consent form. RESULTS: A series of statistical tests was done to assess the validity and reliability of the Patient Expectation Questionnaire. These tests concluded that the newly formulated questionnaire was reliable. CONCLUSION: Patient expectations can be determined prior to treatment thereby allowing the clinician to manage these expectations and strive to meet the attainable ones during the construction of the complete removable denture. Amongst others masticatory efficiency and pain were identified as being high on the request list for new complete removable dentures.

In this contribution the influence of reasonableness on the element of conduct in the South African law of delict will be analysed and compared with the requirement of some form of conduct in English tort law, American tort law and the French law of delict. Fundamental similarities and differences among the different legal systems must be considered. France and South Africa follow a generalising approach to determining a delict while English and American law have a system of separate torts. Even though English and American law do not explicitly refer to the requirement of conduct in tort law, it is generally implicitly required. This is the case whether one is dealing with the tort of negligence or the intentional torts. In French law too, a fait générateur (a generating, triggering, wrongful act or event) generally must also be present in order to ground delictual liability. The concept of fait générateur is broader than the concept of conduct found in the other jurisdictions in that it extends beyond what is regarded as human conduct. The conduct in all the jurisdictions may be in the form of a commission (a positive, physical act or statement) or an omission (a failure to act). The requirement that conduct must be voluntary is generally found in South African, English and American law (with an exception applying to mentally impaired persons) but not in France. Naturally, it is unreasonable to hold a person liable without conduct which results in the causing of harm or loss. In all the above-mentioned jurisdictions, it would generally be unreasonable to hold the wrongdoer liable in delict or tort law if the omission or commission does not qualify as some form of conduct. Thus the influence of reasonableness on the element of conduct in all the above-mentioned jurisdictions is implicit.

Most edentulous patients have expectations regarding complete dentures which may impact on their levels of satisfaction. AIM: To determine whether their expectations influence the satisfaction of patients with new complete dentures constructed by undergraduate dental students. OBJECTIVES: 1. To determine the expectations of patients prior to their receiving new complete dentures. 2. To determine whether those expectations influence satisfaction with the new dentures. METHODOLOGY This observational study used data collected using two questionnaires: Patient Expectation and Oral Health Impact Profile-20. The codings of the questionnaires were aligned to facilitate correlation between the feedback obtained from patients. RESULTS:The sample comprised 100 patients, whose ages ranged between 56-65 years with a majority of females (72%); 85% were of coloured ethnicity. Reliability testing of the Patient Expectation Questionnaire was completed. Oral Health Impact Profile-20 results showed high levels of satisfaction in most domains. Statistical correlation between patients' expectations and satisfaction with new complete dentures was not proven. However, comparison between patient expectations and satisfaction showed positive results. CONCLUSION: Patients' high expectations were met or even exceeded in certain domains. A statistical relationship between patient expectations and satisfaction was not demonstrated, but analysis yielded positive results without any association between the two variables.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different levels of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) alone or in combination with chitosan, in broiler diets, on the growth, feed intake and serum lipid profile of broilers. Starting as 10-day olds, 144 Cobb 500 broiler chicks were fed six manually prepared diets containing 0%, 10%, 20% or 30% buckwheat, or 10% buckwheat supplemented with 250 mg chitosan or 500 mg chitosan/kg. The trial lasted 32 days. Buckwheat alone or in combination with chitosan had no effects on the growth and feed intake of the broilers. Until 15 days lipid profiles in blood sera did not change in birds fed buckwheat alone or buckwheat in combination with chitosan. However, at day 30 the inclusion of 10% - 30% buckwheat alone and 10% buckwheat with 250 mg chitosan/kg or with 500 mg chitosan/kg showed a significant increase in serum HDL-cholesterol concentration and a decrease in total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL-cholesterol concentrations in the serum compared with the control. This demonstrates for the first time that the feeding of higher levels of buckwheat (20% or more) alone or lower levels of buckwheat (10%) with trace amounts of chitosan influenced the lipid profiles of broilers positively. Because hazardous antibiotics are banned in poultry feed, including of buckwheat with trace amounts of chitosan in broiler diets might be a useful alternative to antibiotics in the poultry industry.

In terms of delictual liability, the term "fault" generally refers to the defendant's conduct, whereas "contributory fault" refers to the plaintiff's conduct. "Contributory intent" is a form of "contributory fault" and may apply as a defence limiting delictual liability within the ambit of the Apportionment of Damages Act 34 of 1956 (hereinafter referred to as the "Act"). In terms of the Act, the extent of the plaintiff's as against the defendant's fault is taken into account, resulting (in certain instances) in a reduction of the award to the plaintiff. The Act currently regulates the apportionment of damages based on fault in South Africa. The Act does not specifically provide for conduct performed intentionally, and this also seems to be the situation in quite a few foreign jurisdictions. Initially our courts applied the Act to instances of "contributory negligence" (the other form of "contributory fault") only, but in recent times they have applied it to instances of "contributory intent". This change has occurred as a result of practical situations that arose unexpectedly, where the courts had in the interest of serving justice to deal with cases of intentional conduct on the part of the plaintiff and the defendant. The effect of "contributory intent" as a defence in terms of delictual liability is uncertain and contentious not only in South Africa but in foreign jurisdictions as well. The South African Law Reform Commission undertook a review of the Act and published a report on its findings. The Commission acknowledged that since the Act was passed there have been major developments in the law of delict which the Act has been unable to accommodate, resulting in anomalies in this area of the law. It acknowledged that it is unsatisfactory for our courts to go beyond the parameters of the Act in order to reach a just and equitable result when dealing with the apportionment of liability. The Apportionment of Loss Bill 2003 (hereinafter referred as the "Bill") has been drafted to replace the current Act but has unfortunately not been promulgated. Over ten years have passed since it was drafted. In respect of the Bill, "contributory intent" as a defence limiting delictual liability would be recognised. It is hoped that this contribution will bring about a renewed interest in this forgotten but valuable Bill.

The RAF Amendment Act 19 of 2005 came into effect on 1 August 2008 and sections 17(1) and 17(1A) introduced the concept of "serious injury". This entails that a third-party claimant who wishes to claim compensation for non-patrimonial loss suffered after a motor-vehicle accident has to prove that his or her injury is "serious". If the claimant's injury is not considered "serious" no compensation will be awarded for the non-patrimonial loss suffered and, furthermore, the claimant will also not be entitled to claim any compensation from the wrongdoer in terms of common law (s 21 of the RAF Act). In a sequence of unreported cases the courts have provided guidelines on the procedure to be followed in serious-injury claims. Firstly, a claimant must submit himself or herself to an assessment by a medical practitioner registered under the Health Professions Act. Secondly, the medical practitioner must assess if the injuries sustained by the claimant fall within the list of "non-serious injuries", and if so, compensation for non-patrimonial loss will not be awarded. If the injury is not on the list of non-serious injuries, the medical practitioner may assess the injuries and if they result in 30 per cent or more of whole-person impairment ("WPI") compensation for non-patrimonial loss may be awarded. If the evaluation is that the 30 per cent of WPI cannot be reached, non-patrimonial loss may still be claimed if the injuries fall within the "narrative test", namely (a) resulting in a serious long-term impairment or loss of a body function; (b) constituting permanent serious disfigurement; (c) resulting in severe long-term mental or severe long-term behavioural disturbance or disorder; or (d) resulting in the loss of a foetus. Aplaintiff may use either of the two tests to establish serious injury and in such a manner qualify for compensation for non-patrimonial loss.A medical practitioner must complete and submit a serious-injury assessment report on the RAF 4. If the RAF is not satisfied that the injury has been correctly assessed they must (a) reject the serious-injury assessment report within 60 days and furnish reasons for the rejection; or (b) direct that the third party submit himself or herself, at the cost of the Fund, to a further assessment. Thereafter the RAF must either accept the further assessment or dispute the further assessment within 90 days. An Appeal Tribunal, consisting of three independent medical practitioners, has been created to hear these disputes.

PURPOSE: To compare the results of percutaneous and open drainage for perinephric abscess. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The files of 86 patients who underwent drainage for perinephric abscesses from April 2001 through March 2008 were evaluated. The method of drainage for each patient was performed according to the clinical decision of the treating physician. Percutaneous tube drain (PCD) was used for drainage of the abscess in 43 patients (group 1), while the other 43 patients were managed with open drainage (group 2). Cure was defined as complete obliteration of the abscess cavity. The cure rates, complications, and hospital stay were compared between both groups. RESULTS: The study included 50 males and 36 females with mean age 44.2 ± 17.3. The most common predisposing factors were diabetes mellitus and/or stones. Open drainage of perinephric abscesses resulted in a statistically significant higher cure rate (98% versus 69%, p < 0.001) and shorter hospital stay than PCD (3.6 versus 6 days, p < 0.001). Failure of complete drainage of multilocular abscess was observed in 8 of 13 cases (61.5%) in group 1 and one of 38 cases (2.6%) in group 2 (P < 0.001). Complications were observed in 7% of group 1 and 11.5% in group 2 (P = 0.45). After mean follow-up of 19 months, 9 of 46 patients (19.6%) had recurrence; 7 of them were in group 1. CONCLUSIONS: Percutaneous drainage of perinephric abscess is an effective minimally invasive treatment. However, PCD is not the optimal method for drainage of multilocular abscess because open surgical drainage provided higher cure rates and shorter hospitalization than PCD.